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THE GUIDE LINES TO EXPLORING EGYPT                                                                                                                                                                                   Egypt, the lustrous jewel of North Africa, entices millions of travelers each year with its captivating blend of ancient wonders, mesmerizing desert vistas, and the vibrant lifeblood of the Nile. This guide will navigate you through the enchanting realms of Egypt, offering expert advice and fascinating insights to make your journey truly unforgettable.

1. Why Choose Egypt?

Egypt, often referred to as the cradle of civilization, captivates its visitors with a potent mix of historical grandeur, cultural richness, and adventurous exploits. From the bustling streets of Cairo to the tranquil Nile cruises, from the awe-inspiring Pyramids to the vibrant Red Sea reefs, Egypt is an amalgamation of diverse experiences waiting to be discovered.

2. Planning Your Trip

When it comes to planning your Egyptian expedition, the first step is to decide whether to navigate it independently or opt for an escorted tour. Each option has its own set of advantages, and the choice largely depends on personal preferences, comfort, and budget.

2.1 Independent Travel

Independent travel affords you the freedom and flexibility to explore Egypt at your own pace. It allows you to curate your own itinerary, choose your accommodation, and decide the length of stay in each destination.

2.2 Escorted Tours

On the other hand, escorted tours provide a hassle-free journey, with itineraries, accommodations, and transportation taken care of. These tours are led by experienced guides who offer valuable insights into the local culture, history, and customs.

3. Best Time to Visit Egypt

The optimal time to visit Egypt is between October and April, when the desert heat is more bearable. Keep in mind that December and January are peak tourist months, leading to longer lines at major attractions and higher accommodation prices. Despite the scorching heat, summer months from June to September are ideal for diving and snorkeling in the Red Sea resorts.

4. Cultural Highlights

Egypt’s cultural heritage is as rich as its history. The country’s ancient treasures, most dating back to the time of the Pharaohs, are the main attractions for visitors.

4.1 Cairo

Cairo, the sprawling capital, is often the first stop on an Egyptian journey. Home to the world-renowned Pyramids of Giza and the treasure-laden Egyptian Museum, Cairo also offers a taste of modern Egypt with its bustling bazaars and vibrant nightlife.

4.2 Luxor

In Luxor, often referred to as the world’s greatest open-air museum, you can explore ancient tombs and temples strewn along the banks of the Nile. The Valley of the Kings, Karnak and Luxor Temples, and the Temple of Hatshepsut are among the must-see attractions.

4.3 Aswan

Aswan, with its palm-lined shorelines and beautiful temples, offers a tranquil retreat from the bustling cities. Don’t miss the chance to visit the twin temples of Abu Simbel, one of Egypt’s most striking monuments.

5. Adventure and Leisure Activities

Beyond its historical treasures, Egypt offers a range of activities for adventure enthusiasts and leisure seekers.

5.1 Nile Cruises

A cruise on the Nile is an essential Egyptian experience. These cruises provide a unique perspective of the country, gliding past ancient temples, lush farmlands, and traditional villages.

5.2 Red Sea Resorts

The resorts along the Red Sea, such as Sharm El Sheikh, are popular for their pristine beaches, vibrant coral reefs, and world-class diving facilities. These resorts also offer a range of activities including guided tours, snorkeling, and desert excursions.

5.3 Sahara Exploration

For a different kind of adventure, head to the Sahara. The White Desert National Park, with its surreal white rock formations, and the Black Desert, known for its dark conical hills, offer a glimpse into Egypt’s contrasting landscapes.

6. Egyptian Cuisine

Egyptian cuisine is a delightful fusion of flavors, reflecting the country’s rich cultural influences. Staple dishes include ful medames (mashed fava beans), koshari (a mix of lentils, rice, pasta, and tomato sauce), and molokhia (a green soup made from jute leaves).

7. Accommodation

From luxury beach resorts and international hotel chains to quaint guesthouses, Egypt offers a range of accommodation options to suit every budget. When staying along the Nile, consider paying extra for a room with a river view for an unforgettable experience.

8. Local Customs and Etiquette

Egyptians are known for their warm hospitality and friendliness. Respect for local customs and traditions is appreciated. Modest clothing is recommended, especially when visiting religious sites.

9. Safety and Travel Advice

While Egypt is generally safe for tourists, it is advisable to stay vigilant, especially in crowded tourist spots. Always follow local advice and avoid regions where travel is not recommended.

10. Visa and Passport Requirements

Most travelers to Egypt need a visa. It’s recommended to obtain your visa before traveling, especially if you’re visiting for work or business. Your passport should be valid for at least six months from the date of arrival.

11. Health and Travel Insurance

Before traveling, make sure you have appropriate travel insurance that covers medical expenses. Also, check any vaccination requirements and health advice for Egypt.

12. Packing Tips

Pack lightweight, breathable clothes for the desert heat, along with a hat, sunglasses, and sunscreen. Comfortable shoes are a must for exploring ancient sites. Don’t forget your swimsuit for the Red Sea resorts!
Egypt, with its timeless allure and incredible diversity, promises an adventure of a lifetime. Whether you’re a history buff, a culture vulture, or an adventure seeker, this ancient land has something to offer everyone. So pack your bags and get ready to uncover the mysteries of Egypt!

Cairo Travel Information: Egypt’s  Capital

CAIRO IS THe bustling capital of Egypt, is a city of contrasts, where ancient wonders coexist with modern skyscrapers and vibrant markets. With its rich history, diverse culture, and stunning architecture, Cairo offers visitors an unforgettable travel experience that is both captivating and enlightening. This comprehensive travel guide will provide essential Cairo travel information, including top attractions, local culture, and practical tips to help you plan the perfect trip to this fascinating destination.Cairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in Africa, with a name that means “the victorious city.” It is located on both banks of the River Nile near the head of the river’s delta in northern Egypt and has been settled for more than 6,000 years, serving as the capital of numerous Egyptian kingdoms. Cairo is known locally as “Misr,” the Arabic name for Egypt, because of its centrality to Egyptian life.
Greater Cairo is spread across three of Egypt’s administrative governorates. The northeastern part is known as the Kaliobia Governorate. At the same time, the west bank is part of the governorate of Giza, and the eastern and southeastern parts are other governorates known as the Cairo Governorate. The three districts are collectively known as greater Cairo.
The city is marked by the traditions and influences of the East and the West, both the ancient and the modern. However, Cairo also reflects Egypt’s growing poverty, and it struggles to cope with problems caused by massive population growth, urban sprawl, and deteriorating infrastructure and public services.
The city of Cairo

ciro covers an area of more than 453 square kilometers (more than 175 square miles). However, it isn’t easy to geographically measure and separate the city from some of its immediate suburbs. Bracketed by the desert to the east, south, and west and bounded by the fertile Nile delta to the north, Cairo sits astride the river, though it spreads farther on the east bank than the west.

Top Attractions in Cairo

1. The Pyramids of Giza: The most iconic symbols of Egypt, the Pyramids of Giza are a must-visit attraction for any traveler to Cairo. Comprising the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure, the pyramids represent the pinnacle of ancient Egyptian engineering and are indeed a sight to behold.
2. The Sphinx: Located near the Pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx is a monumental statue with the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh, believed to represent Khafre. The enigmatic Sphinx has captured the imagination of visitors for centuries and remains one of Egypt’s most enduring mysteries.
3. The Egyptian Museum: Home to the world’s most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts, the Egyptian Museum offers visitors an unparalleled glimpse into the country’s rich history. Highlights include the treasures of Tutankhamun, the Narmer Palette, and the Royal Mummy Room.
4. Khan el Khalili Bazaar: Cairo’s most famous market, Khan el-Khalili, is a narrow alley with shops selling everything from traditional handicrafts to aromatic spices. The bazaar is an excellent place to experience Cairo’s vibrant street life and pick up souvenirs or gifts.
5. Islamic Cairo: The historic district of Islamic Cairo is home to some of the city’s most beautiful mosques, madrasas, and monuments. Must-see sights include the Al-Azhar Mosque, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, and the Citadel of Saladin, which offers stunning city views
7. Practical Tips for Visiting Cairo

1. Transportation: Cairo is well connected by air, rail, and road, with frequent flights from international destinations and trains from other cities in Egypt. Within the city, taxis, Uber, and the Cairo Metro are popular ways to get around, but traffic can be heavy, so plan accordingly.
2. Accommodation: Cairo offers many accommodation options, from budget-friendly hostels to luxurious hotels. Consider staying in the downtown area or Zamalek for easy access to the city’s main attractions.
3. Weather: Cairo has a hot desert climate, with scorching temperatures during the summer months. The best time to visit is between October and April when the weather is more pleasant and comfortable for sightseeing.
4. Safety: Cairo is generally considered a safe destination for travelers, but it is always advisable to exercise caution, be aware of your surroundings, and follow local advice on safety and security.
5. Dress Code: Cairo is a predominantly Muslim city, and visitors should dress modestly to respect local customs.

Cairo also includes several river islands, which are essential to the city’s life. As the region’s principal commercial, administrative, and tourist center, Cairo contains many cultural institutions, business and corporate headquarters, governmental offices, universities, and hotels, creating a busy stream of constant activity.

1. Transportation: Cairo is well connected by air, rail, and road, with frequent flights from international destinations and trains from other cities in Egypt. Within the city, taxis, Uber, and the Cairo Metro are popular ways to get around, but traffic can be heavy, so plan accordingly.
2. Accommodation: Cairo offers many accommodation options, from budget-friendly hostels to luxurious hotels. Consider staying in the downtown area or Zamalek for easy access to the city’s main attractions.
3. Weather: Cairo has a hot desert climate, with scorching temperatures during the summer months. The best time to visit is between October and April when the weather is more pleasant and comfortable for sightseeing.
4. Safety: Cairo is generally considered a safe destination for travelers, but it is always advisable to exercise caution, be aware of your surroundings, and follow local advice on safety and security.
5. Dress Code: Cairo is a predominantly Muslim city, and visitors should dress modestly to respect local customs.

Cairo also includes several river islands, which are essential to the city’s life. As the region’s principal commercial, administrative, and tourist center, Cairo contains many cultural institutions, business and corporate headquarters, governmental offices, universities, and hotels, creating a busy stream of constant activity.

Pyramids of Giza

The center of downtown Cairo is Tahrir Square, which is located along the east bank. A hub of tourist activity, the vast and open square contains numerous attractions, including the Egyptian Museum, the Arab League headquarters, and the modern Umar Makram Mosque. Cairo’s main thoroughfare, Corniche, extends from north to south along the east bank of the Nile. Located nearby is the narrow strip of land known as Garden City, one of the city’s newer residential areas. In the center of the city is the river island of Zamalek (also called Jezerah, meaning “the island”), which contains an upscale residential and commercial neighborhood also known as Zamalek, the Cairo Opera House (founded in 1869), and the Cairo Tower (1961). Three bridges link the island of Zamalek with both banks of the river. The island of Al-Rodah, located to the south, is connected to the mainland by two additional bridges, while another bridge to the north carries road and rail traffic across the Nile.
Outside the city’s central area on the east bank are the neighborhoods of Islamic Cairo. These neighborhoods span from the northeast to the southeast of the city. These neighborhoods are known for their narrow streets, crowded markets (bazaars), and hundreds of mosques, many dating back to the Medieval period. South of the Islamic district lies Old Cairo, where some of the city’s oldest architectural monuments can be found, and many tourists love to explore. Old Cairo is also the home of Cairo’s Coptic Christian community, the site of the Coptic Museum, plus many Coptic churches.
The efficient irrigation of Cairo’s desert outskirts has allowed for the development of suburbs, such as Heliopolis, located to the northeast. Other modern suburbs are interspersed with recently created migrant neighborhoods that accommodate the city’s growing population. Industrial areas further crowd the city, restricting its growth. An international airport serves Cairo, situated approximately 24 kilometers (about 15 miles) northeast of the city, while the Ramses railway station and the main bus terminal are also located near downtown Cairo.
Cairo is the chief commercial and industrial center of Egypt. Local industries manufacture cotton textiles, food products, construction supplies, motor vehicles, aircraft, and chemical fertilizers. Iron and steel are produced in the south, just outside the city. Cairo is also a center for government activities and service industries. Because of the city’s warm climate and numerous historical and cultural attractions, tourism plays a vital role in its economy. Cairo receives goods shipped on the Nile at the river port, located at the northern end of the city. From Cairo, products are sent by road, railroad, and waterway to the Mediterranean ports of Alexandria and Port Said. The city is connected by train service to other major cities. Traffic congestion is a growing problem in Cairo, but it is the only city in the Middle East and Africa with a subway. This system opened in the city in 1987 for the first time, carrying about 2 million passengers daily. Lately, a second line has been opened, which links the old line with the western superb in the west bank (Giza); the third line is still under construction, connecting Cairo airport to the city center and finishing in the busy suburb of Imbaba.

Population

In 1998, Cairo was estimated to have a population of 16 million. The people of Cairo are known as Cairenes; nearly all are Egyptian citizens with few foreigners. The city is an essential center of the Islamic faith, and the Cairenes are predominantly Sunni Muslims. However, the city is also home to a sizable Coptic community, which traces its origins to the early Christians who populated Cairo in large numbers before the arrival of Islam. Cairo’s population swells daily as workers flow into and out of the city from the surrounding area, clogging roads and rail lines every morning and evening. Many Cairenes are recent arrivals from villages and small cities along the Nile. These rural migrants arrive with few skills or resources and compound the existing problems of unemployment and housing shortages.

Luxor Travel Guide

Located in Upper Egypt, Luxor has been described as the world’s largest open-air museum. It has been elevated to the governorate status, although it is still classified as being in the province of Qena. Luxor has a population of around 230,000, primarily employed in tourism, although many are used in agriculture and commerce. Luxor is one of the most popular destinations in Egypt and qualifies as one of those places you must see. Because of this, almost every Egyptian tourist company has an office somewhere in the town.
Luxor has been estimated to contain about a third of the most valuable monuments and antiquities in the world, making it one of this planet’s most important tourist sites. Monuments such as The Luxor Temple, Karnak Temple, the Valley of the Kings, the Valley of the Queens, Deir El-Bahri (the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut), the worker’s village at Deir El-Medina, the list goes on and on, and on. Although most visitors will stay for just a few days, visiting everything in this fantastic town would take a substantial amount of time.
Once known as Thebes, Luxor’s importance in ancient Egyptian history cannot be denied. It was the religious capital almost throughout the Pharaonic period, so the town is dominated by two temples: the Temple of Luxor and the immense Temple of Karnak, the world’s largest temple complex.
Dedicated to the ancient Egyptian god Amun Ra, the Temple of Karnak was constantly expanded by successive pharaohs, each adding their tribute to the god. The site dates back to the Middle Kingdom under the reign of Mentuhotep (11th Dynasty), but most of what can be seen today is from the New Kingdom. Other parts of the complex include sites dedicated to Mut, the wife of Amun Ra, and their son Khonsu.
Most people know that Luxor was once Thebes, but “Thebes” was not what the ancient Egyptians called it. Ancient texts show that it was called T-apt, “The Shrine,” with the ancient Greeks calling it Tea Pie. The Arabs had pronunciation problems, so it became Thebes to them. The name vanished then as the area submitted to the desert. By the 10th century, Arab travelers thought the ruins were grand buildings, so they called it Al-Oksour, or “site of the palaces,” which eventually became Luxor.
Luxor is situated 670km (416 miles) to the south of Cairo, 220km (137 miles) to the north of Aswan, and 280km (174 miles) to the west of Hurghada. It is the second most popular place to visit in Egypt, behind Cairo, and is accessible in several ways:

By Air

Luxor International Airport is 6km (4 miles) east of the city and can be reached from most countries worldwide,
although it is most famous for charter flights. From here, you can also fly to most of the main cities and towns in Egypt and arrive from them. EgyptAir runs daily flights from Cairo to Luxor, as well as Luxor to Cairo, which only take, on average, about 50 minutes.

By Train

Luxor is situated on the central Cairo to Aswan railway line and has a modern station in El-Mahata Square. Services to both Cairo and Aswan are frequent, although restrictions on tourists are in place right now, allowing them to only use the sleeper service or the trains to either side of them.

By Road

Even though Luxor is connected by road to Cairo and has a good bus connection with the capital, tourists are asked to refrain from attempting to use this mode of transport for this journey and are left with only rail or flight as an alternative. However, the road to Aswan can be used and allows visiting sites such as Edfu and Kom Ombo. Hurghada is reachable by a 3.5-hour bus journey, opening up the Red Sea for those who wish for a change. Please note: if you do intend to use this mode of transport, you are best booking your seats at least 24 hours in advance to ensure you get the seats you want.

By Cruise

Nowadays, you can only go to Aswan by cruise boat, although some operators offer a one-day sail to see Dendera. The River Nile has not been used for cruises between Cairo and Luxor since the late 1990s.

The Ancient City of Thebes

Although it was never the capital of a united Egypt, Thebes was the capital of Upper Egypt when Egypt was split in two. This was especially true during the period of the Hyksos invasion when Avaris became the capital in the North. Thebes was where the various pharaohs of Upper Egypt were based, and it was from here that the final campaign, under Ahmose I, to expel the Hyksos, first started.
Today, Luxor is split in two by the River Nile. These two areas are the East Bank (where the town lies) and the West Bank. Though this was also true in ancient times, the two parts were the City of the Living (East Bank) and the City of the Dead (West Bank). Like most of the River Nile, the western side tends to be more desert terrain, with the eastern side having far more arable land, so settlement sites tended to favor this latter side.

Aswan Travel Guide

Aswan is the third biggest town in Egypt today and the biggest one in upper Egypt. It is situated at the foot of the Nile Valley to the North end of Lake Nasser. Recently, Aswan has become a significant aluminum and iron mining area. It is also a favorite place for tourists to visit because it is a major stop for cruise boats on the River Nile and Lake Nasser. It has a local market that is an excellent place to shop for a holiday. This is especially true if you want spices, as you will find the best fresh spices in the Aswan market. Aswan also has many attractive tourist spots to visit.
Aswan is the capital of its governorate and has a population of about 1.2 million. Most of the city’s residents are Nubians and local tribes of the Kenzo people.
After the Aswan High Dam was constructed, the city became a refuge for Nubians who chose to flee to Egypt after the waters flooded their homelands. There was also a worldwide rescue campaign for the Nubian monuments during and after the dam’s construction.
Aswan takes its name from the ancient Egypt

In ancient times, the city worshipped the God Khnum, but he was later replaced by the Goddess Isis, the Goddess of magic and maternity, in the Greco-Roman period. A temple was built for her on the Island of Philae, which had to be moved, along with other structures, when the waters of Lake Nasser engulfed the island. Though still known as “the Temples of Philae, they can now be accessed on the nearby Agilika Island.
Because of Aswan’s location, just north of the Tropic of Cancer, the city has a hot climate throughout the year, and it is advised to cover your head when walking about and drink water constantly. Aswan is 890 Km (553 miles) south of Cairo and 220 Km (137 miles) south of Luxor. It is the third most popular place to visit in Egypt, behind Cairo and Luxor, and is accessible in several ways.
Because of the location of Aswan, just north of the Tropic of Cancer, the city enjoys a scorching climate throughout the year! It is advised to constantly cover your head when walking about and drink water to avoid heat stroke and exhaustion.

How To Get To Aswan

the original of ASWAN  word “swan,” meaning “the market.” This is because it was located on the main trade route between Egypt and the southern lands, bringing gold, enslaved people, and ivory into Egypt. The governors of the 6th Dynasty sent many expeditions to explore the many African countries to the south, most of which started from Aswan. It was also the primary source of granite, sandstone, and quartzite to construct major monuments throughout Egypt.

By Road

Although Aswan is connected by road to Cairo and has a good bus connection with the capital, tourists are asked not to attempt to use this mode of transport for this journey and are therefore left with only rail or flight as an alternative. The road to Luxor can be used though as it allows visiting sites such as Edfu and Kom Ombo. Please note: if you do intend to use this mode of transport you are best booking your seats at least 24 hours in advance to ensure you get the seats you want.

By Air

Aswan International Airport is located 25km (16 miles) southwest of the city and can be reached from most countries around the world, though, like Luxor, it is most popular for charter flights. From here you can also fly to most of the main cities and towns in Egypt, as well as arrive from them. EgyptAir runs daily flights from Cairo to Aswan, as well as Aswan to Cairo, which take, on average, about 60 minutes. It is also possible to book flights to Abu Simbel, though this must be done in advance.

By Train

Aswan is the terminus on the main Cairo to Aswan railway line and has a modern station at the northern end of the city. Services to both Cairo and Luxor are very frequent, though restrictions on tourists are in place right now which allows them to only use the sleeper service or the trains on either side of them

Alexandria Travel Guide

Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 333 B.C. and has a unique history quite different from many other cities in Egypt. When this famous Macedonian (the Greek state, not the former Yugoslav country) was en route to visit the Oracle Temple of Amun at the Siwa oasis, he stopped overnight at the village of “Re-qdt” (its Greek name is “Racotis”) between the Mediterranean Sea and the Lake of Mariott (its location today is the area of Tel Bab Sadrah or Karmouz). Alexander decided that this location would be where a great city would be built and charged one of his architects, Democrats, to make it.
Alexander continued to Siwa to consult the oracle about his destiny and left Egypt to fight the Persians in Asia. Sadly, what the Oracle told Alexander is not known, but it is generally believed that he was told he was to be a great leader. After his triumphal campaigns, Alexander the Great died in Babylon in 323 B.C. without ever seeing the city that bears his name; in fact, it was not until the reigns of Ptolemy I (Soter “the Saviour”) and his successor Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) that the building of the city was completed. It became the principal capital of the region.

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Alexander’s architect, Dinocratis, planned the city in squares like a chessboard, with two main streets interlaced vertically and horizontally, extending from east to west and north to south. Alexandria’s initial design had five districts, each one named after a letter of the first five letters in the Greek Alphabet: A (Alpha), B (Beta), G (Gamma), D (Delta), and E (Epsilon). These five letters represent the initial letters of the text: “Alexander the king, the descendant of the gods, erected the city.”

Alexandria is situated on Egypt’s Mediterranean coast, 179km (111 miles) north of Cairo. It is Egypt’s second-largest city, behind Cairo, but is sadly overlooked by tourists in some ways. It is accessible in many ways:

By Air

Alexandria International Airport, or El Nouzha Airport, is located 7km (4 miles) southeast of the city center. It offers services to domestic destinations within Egypt and cities across the Arab world. EgyptAir is the largest airline at the airport, operating over 50 weekly domestic and regional flights.
The future of El Nouzha was in doubt with the opening of Borg El Arab Airport. However, in early 2010, the Egyptian Ministry of Civil Aviation announced significant plans to overhaul the airport and its facilities to ensure its future as one of the two commercial airports for the Alexandria and Nile Delta region. The airport will be closed to commercial operations by late 2011 for a significant renovation, and all traffic will be transferred to Borg El Arab airport, Alexandria’s second airport. The renovation project is expected to cost US$120 million, including lengthening the main runway (04/22) by an additional 750m and constructing a new passenger terminal to replace the existing aging facility. As of January 2016, the airport remains closed, without an estimate of when it might reopen.

By Train

Alexandria is the northern terminus for the line that runs through Cairo to Aswan, and the service to Cairo is excellent. Services are also available to Marsa Matruh via El-Alamein and Port Said.

By Road

Alexandria has a vast road network connecting it with towns to the east, the west, and south towards Cairo, including the myriad of towns in the Delta region. Cairo is reached by two main highways: The Desert Road and the Agricultural Road. Both are very busy, with the former being 6-8 lanes wide.

By Cruise

Alexandria has a major seaport, a popular stopping point for ocean-going cruises, and many visitors experience Egypt by arriving here.

Is Egypt Safe for Tourists? Debunking Myths and Misconceptions

“Is it safe to travel to Egypt right now?” is a common question among potential tourists, and it’s understandable given the region’s history of political unrest and occasional incidents of violence. However, it’s essential to separate fact from fiction and recognize that the vast majority of tourists in Egypt, including Alexandria, have safe and enjoyable experiences.
First and foremost, it’s important to remember that Egypt relies heavily on tourism. The government and local communities go to great lengths to ensure the safety and well-being of visitors. This includes increased security measures at tourist sites, airports, and hotels and a strong police presence in popular areas.
One common myth about Egypt is that it’s a hotbed of terrorism. While there have been isolated incidents in recent years, these events are the exception rather than the rule. Furthermore, most of these incidents have occurred far away from the Sinai Peninsula or Western Desert tourist areas. The major tourist destinations, including Alexandria, Cairo, Luxor, and Aswan, have remained safe and secure.

EGYPT HISTORY

The origins of ancient Egyptian civilization, which many regards as one of the fountainheads of Western culture, cannot be established with certainty. Archaeological evidence suggests that early dwellers in the Nile Valley were influenced by cultures of the Near East, but the degree of this influence is yet to be determined. Describing the development of Egyptian civilization, like attempts to identify its intellectual foundations, is largely a process of conjecture based on archaeological discoveries of enduring ruins, tombs, and monuments, many of which contain invaluable specimens of the ancient culture. Inscriptions in hieroglyphs, for instance, have provided priceless data.
The framework for the study of the Dynastic period of Egyptian history, between the 1st dynasty and the Ptolemaic period, relies on the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, a Ptolemaic priest of the 3rd century BC, who organized the country’s rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families. General agreement exists on the division of Egyptian history, up to the conquest of Alexander the Great, into Old, Middle, and New kingdoms with intermediate periods, followed by the late and Ptolemaic periods, but chronology and genealogy are continually being refined in light of new evidence and by the use of increasingly sophisticated dating techniques.

Prehistory:

Some 60,000 years ago, the Nile River began its yearly inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as a source of food and water. In time, climatic changes, including periods of aridity, further served to confine human habitation to the Nile Valley, although this was not always true. From the Chalcolithic period (the Copper Age beginning about 4000 BC) into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an extended part of the land.
In the 7th millennium B.C., Egypt was environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered at Nubian sites in modern Sudan. Enough pottery has been found in Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC (in the Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating sequence. The Predynastic period, which ends with the unification of Egypt under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts, each of which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded datable archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity but no long-term sequences such as those found in the south.

Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period:

Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force that was to become the consolidating element in the first united kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing dates from this period; soon, the names of early rulers began to appear on monuments. This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which had as many as 13 rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC), followed by the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with at least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at Abydos and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd dynasties.

The Old Kingdom:

The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of rule by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power over a strongly unified government. Religion played an important role; in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy, wherein the Pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both absolute monarchs and, also gods on earth.
The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC, emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern motifs in his mortuary buildings at Sakkara. His architect, Imhotep, used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in the complex there, thus creating the first monumental structure of stone; its central element, the Step Pyramid, was Zoser’s tomb. In order to deal with the affairs of the state and to administer construction projects, the king began to develop an effective bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of a golden age of cultural freshness and vigor.
The 4th Dynasty began with King Senfru, whose building projects included the first true pyramid at Dahshor (south of Sakkara). Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the Sinai. Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to the kingdom. Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops), who built the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign, that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates the administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu’s son Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar element (Ra, or Re) in the royal titular and the religion. Khafre (or Chephren), another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother to the throne and built his mortuary complex in Giza. The remaining rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus, who reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza.
Under the 4th Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a peak in its development, and this high level was generally maintained in the 5th and 6th Dynasties. The splendor of the engineering feats of the pyramids was approximated in every other field of endeavor, including architecture, sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial arts and sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old Kingdom physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge of physiology, surgery, the circulatory system of the body, and antiseptics.

Beginning of Decline:

Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of decreasing royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the bureaucracy and the enhanced power of no royal administrators. The last king of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407 BC, was buried at Sakkara, with a body of religious spells called Pyramid Texts carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber. Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty. Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about 2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler’s wife was involved. It is believed that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned about 2350-2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his vizier (chief minister). Central authority over the economy was also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The Nomes (districts) were rapidly becoming individually powerful as the monarchs—governors of the districts—were beginning to remain in place rather than being periodically transferred to different Nomes.

First Intermediate Period:

The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife, the reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure. It is clear, however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a total of only 25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were in effective control of their districts, and factions in the south and north vied for power. Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and 10th dynasties, the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their area and extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the delta) and south to Asyut (Lycopolis). The rival southern nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty, controlling the area from Abydos to Elephantine near Syene (present-day Aswan). The early part of this dynasty, the first of the Middle Kingdom, overlapped the last part of the 10th.

The Middle Kingdom:

Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no longer effective, and regional concerns were openly championed. Egyptian art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary complexes were built. The religion was also democratized, as commoners claimed prerogatives previously reserved for royalty alone. They could, for instance, use spells derived from the royal Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.

Reunification:

Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned from 2061-2010 BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their control from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left to Mentuhotep to complete the reunification process sometime after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and despite occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and control over the whole kingdom. He replaced some nomarchs and limited the power of the nomes, which was still considerable. Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary temple at Dayr al Bahrì incorporated both traditional and regional elements; the tomb was separate from the temple, and there was no pyramid.
The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity. Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes, rebuilt the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and administrators. The literature was predominantly propaganda designed to reinforce the image of the king as a “good shepherd” rather than as an inaccessible god. During the last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as co-regent. “The Story of Sinuhe,” a literary work of the period, implies that the king was assassinated.
Amenemhet’s successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris I, who reigned from 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia and established trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to Palestine and Syria and campaigned against the Libyans in the west. Sesostris II, who reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land reclamation in Al Fayyum. His successor, Sesostris III, who reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal dug at the first cataract of the Nile, formed a standing army (which he used in his campaign against the Nubians), and built new forts on the southern frontier. He divided the administration into three powerful geographic units, each controlled by an official under the vizier, and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet III continued the policies of his predecessors and extended the land reform.
A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the Theban kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the period reveal an extraordinary delicacy of design, and the time was considered the golden age of Egyptian literature.

Second Intermediate Period:

The rulers of the 13th Dynasty—some 50 or more in about 120 years—were weaker than their predecessors, although they were still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central government. During the latter part of their rule, however, their power was challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which won control over the delta but also by the Hyksos, who invaded western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty, there was a large Hyksos population in northern Egypt. As the central government entered a period of decline, their presence made possible an influx of people from the coastal side of Phoenicia and Palestine and the establishment of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks the beginning of the Second Intermediate period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted for some 214 years. The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining control over the middle and northern parts of the country. At the same time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the delta and Middle Egypt, but it may have been subservient to the Hyksos. More independence was exerted in the south by a third contemporaneous power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over the territory between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but it was his brother, Ahmose, who finally subdued them, reuniting Egypt.

The New Kingdom:

With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose re-established the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the support of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The importance of women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high titles and positions of royal wives and mothers.

The 18th Dynasty Kings:

Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control over his administration—he was co-regent for five years—he began to extend Egypt’s boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major builder at Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors, separated his tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom of hiding his final resting place, then he continued the advances of the new Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence of the god Amon. His tomb was the first in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him, marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III, was still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within a year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son ruled jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon Hatshepsut’s death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and Palestine, which had broken away under the joint rule, and then continued to expand his empire. His annals in the temple at Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after Hatshepsut’s death, he ordered the obliteration of her name and images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC, and Thutmose IV tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face of growing threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they found it necessary to use negotiations as well as force.
Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349 BC, and art and architecture flourished during his reign. He maintained the balance of power among Egypt’s neighbors by diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood. Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see Tall al ‘Amarana, which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of the sun on which his monotheistic religion centered. The religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, returned the capital to Thebes. Tutankhamun is known today chiefly for his richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb, who reigned 1321-1293 BC.

The Ramesside Period

The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291 BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the army. Reigning for only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria, Palestine, the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary at Abydos. Like his father, he favored the delta capital of Pi-Ramesse (now Qantir). One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded him and reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much construction at Luxor and Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum (his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut temples at Abu Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and Memphis. After campaigns against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty with them and married a Hittite princess. His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC, defeated the Sea Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the Middle East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his desolating Israel. Later, rulers had to contend with constant uprisings by subject peoples of the empire.
The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary complex at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death, the New Kingdom declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even had himself depicted in royal regalia.

Third Intermediate Period

The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related, from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may have been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty began with Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans’ rule deteriorated, several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact, the next two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Kushite) Dynasty effectively controlled much of Egypt during the latter years of the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.

Late Period

The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Cushites ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians in 671 BC. The native rule was reestablished early in the 26th Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement, reminiscent of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th Dynasty. When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II in 525 BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination under the 27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under the 28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in Manetho’s chronology, represented the second Persian domination.

The Hellenistic and Roman Periods:

The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the country. Although two Egyptian governors were named as well, power was clearly in the hands of Ptolemy, who, in a few years, took absolute control of the country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty:

Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of Alexander’s empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of Ptolemy’s time, but in 305 BC, he assumed the royal title and founded the dynasty that bears his name (see Ptolemaic Dynasty). Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic world, and at various times it extended its rule over parts of Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands.
Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role in affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they periodically demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open revolts, all of which were, however, quickly suppressed. In the reign of Ptolemy VI, Egypt became a protectorate under Antiochus IV of Syria, who successfully invaded the country in 169 BC. The Romans, however, forced Antiochus to give up the country, which was then divided between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VIII; the latter took full control upon the death of his brother in 145 BC.
The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status of Egypt while continually losing territory to the Romans. Cleopatra VII was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In an attempt to maintain Egyptian power, she aligned herself with Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the end. After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 B.C.

Roman and Byzantine Rule:

For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd century AD, when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and profit and were dependent on its supply of grain to feed their multitudes. Roman Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties as commander of the army and official judge were similar to those of the Pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with which the native population was familiar. Because of the immense power of the prefects, however, their functions were eventually divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th century AD put the army under a separate commander, directly responsible to him.
Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern boundary at Aswan was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians. Egypt’s population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and it included large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other peoples from Asia Minor. The mixture of the cultures did not lead to a homogeneous society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212, however, Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population citizenship in the Roman Empire.
Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been under the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the Roman Empire, it was the center of thriving commerce between India and Arabia and the Mediterranean countries. It was the home of the great Alexandrian library and museum and had a population of some 300,000 (excluding slaves).
Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass, metal, and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade brought in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals from the Red Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was subject to a variety of taxes as well.
In order to control the people and placate the powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors protected the ancient religion, completed or embellished temples begun under the Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on them as Pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna, Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae. The Egyptian cults of Isis and Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was also an important center of early Christendom and the first one of Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite church separated from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century.
During the 7th century, the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded Egypt in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in 642, the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new religion, Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.

Egypt Under The Byzantines:

Alienated by the religious intolerance and heavy taxation of the Byzantine government, the Coptic Egyptians offered little resistance to their Arab conquerors. A treaty was subsequently signed, by which the Egyptians agreed to pay a poll tax (jizyah) in return for an Arab promise to respect the religious practices, lives, and property of the Copts. Besides the poll tax, the male population, estimated at between 6 and 8 million, paid the kharaj, a tax levied on agricultural land.

Local Government:

No changes in the administration were made by the Arabs, who adopted the Byzantine decentralized system of provincial governors reporting to a chief governor, resident in the capital, Alexandria. They did, however, later move the capital to a new, more central location, called Al Fustat (“the tent”), a few miles south of present-day Cairo.
For the next two centuries, Egypt was ruled by governors appointed by the caliph, the leader of the Muslim community. In this system, mild and generous rule alternated with severity and religious oppression, depending on the character of the governor appointed his relationship with the population, and his financial needs. Immigration of Arab tribes and the replacement of the Coptic language with Arabic in all public documents began a slow process of Arabization that eventually turned Coptic-speaking Christian Egypt into a largely Muslim and wholly Arabic-speaking country. Coptic became a liturgical language.

Internal Strife:

Under the Abbasid caliphs (750-868), governors were appointed for brief periods, and Egypt was plagued by a series of insurrections arising from conflicts between the different sects of Muslims who had settled there: the Sunni, or orthodox majority and the minority Shia sect. On several occasions, the Copts also rose to protest excessive taxation. Such uprisings were met with repression and persecution by the government. Internal conditions became so bad in the late 8th century that a group of new immigrants from Andalusia allied themselves with an Arab tribe and seized Alexandria, holding it until an army arrived from Baghdad and exiled them to Crete. Insurrections continued to break out among the Arabs, who even defeated a governor and burned his baggage. Rebellions by the Copts continued until Caliph Abdullah al-Mamun led a Turkish army to put down the revolts in 832. This was a period of ruthless and unscrupulous governors who abused the population and extorted money from them. The only bulwark against such oppression lay in the chief qadi, the country’s leading Muslim magistrate, who maintained the sacred law—the Sharia—in the face of abuse of power and helped ease the rapacity of the governors.
Despite a predominantly rural population, commercial centers flourished, and Al Fustat grew to become a trading metropolis. From 856 onward, Egypt was given as an iqta, a form of fief, to the Turkish military oligarchy that dominated the caliphate in Baghdad. In 868, Ahmad ibn Tulun, a 33-year-old Turk, was sent to the country as governor. A man of ability and education, Tulun ruled wisely and well, but he also turned Egypt into an autonomous province, linked with the Abbasids only by the yearly payment of a small tribute. Tulun built a new city, Al Qita’ì (“the Wards”), north of Al Fustat. Under his benevolent rule, Egypt prospered and expanded to annex Syria. Tulun’s dynasty (the Tulunids) ruled for 37 years over an empire that included Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.

The Fatimid:

After the last rule by the Tulunids, the country fell into a state of anarchy. Its weak and defenseless condition made it easy prey for the Fatimids, a Shiite dynasty that, in 909, rejecting the authority of the Abbasids, had proclaimed their own caliphate in Tunisia and by the mid-10th century, controlled most of North Africa. In 969, they invaded and conquered Egypt and subsequently founded a new city, Cairo, north of Al Fustat, making it their capital.
Al Fustat, however, remained the commercial hub of the country under the Fatimids. It was an impressive, multistoried urban center with an excellent underground sewage system. An Iranian traveler, Nasir-i-Khosrau, who visited Egypt in 1046, marveled at the rich markets and the security of the land. Egypt was then enjoying a period of tranquillity and prosperity.
The Fatimids, although Shiites in their beliefs, for the most part, coexisted peacefully with the predominantly Sunni population. They founded the oldest university in the world, Al Azhar, and Cairo became a great intellectual center.

The Ayyubids:

Tranquillity disappeared with later Fatimid rulers, who could not control their unruly regiments of Berber and Sudanese soldiers. The low Nile caused serious famine in 1065. The new danger appeared with the First Crusade from Western Europe, which established Christian control over Syria and Palestine in the late 1090s. The Fatimid caliphs, by now pawns in the hands of their generals, appealed to Nur ad-Din of Halab (Aleppo), and he sent an army to help them against the Crusaders in 1168. Saladin, one of Nur ad-Din’s generals, was installed as vizier. In 1171 he abolished the Fatimid caliphate, founding the Ayyubid dynasty and restoring Sunni rule to Egypt. Saladin reconquered most of Syria and Palestine from the Crusaders and became the most powerful Middle Eastern ruler of this time. His nephew, Sultan al-Kamil, who reigned 1218-1238, successfully defended Egypt against a Christian attack in 1218-1221, but after his death, Ayyubid power declined. The Ninth Crusade, led by Louis IX of France, was repelled in 1249 with the aid of the Mamelukes, slave troops in Ayyubid service. The following year the Mamelukes overthrew the Ayyubids and established their own ruling house.

The Mamelukes:

The first Mameluke dynasty, the Bahri, held power as sultans of Egypt until 1382. Hereditary succession was frequently disregarded, and the throne was usurped by the more powerful emirs (military commanders). Many among them were remarkable rulers, such as Baybars I, who halted the Mongol advance into Syria and Egypt in 1260. Two other Mongol invasions were repelled by the Mamelukes, who also expelled the Crusaders from the region and captured ‘Akko, their last stronghold in Palestine, in 1291. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, the Mameluke realm extended north to the borders of Asia Minor.
The age of the Mamelukes was one of extraordinary brilliance in the arts. It was also an age of commercial expansion; Egypt’s spice traders, the Karimi, were merchant princes who vied with the emirs in patronizing the arts.
After the death of the last great Bahri sultan, al-Nasir, in 1341, Egypt lapsed into decline. His descendants were mere figureheads who allowed real power to remain in the hands of the emirs. In 1348 the plague known as the Black Death swept over the land, radically reducing the population.
The second dynasty of Mameluke sultans, the Burjis, was of Circassian origin and ruled from 1382 to 1517. Most of the Burji rulers exercised little real authority; their dynasty was marked by continual power struggles among the Mameluke elite. In the midst of rebellion and civil strife, the Mamelukes continued to hold Egypt and Syria by virtue of their ability to repel invasions. By the early 16th century, however, they were threatened by the growing power of the Ottoman Empire, and in 1517 the Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded Egypt and ruled it.

The Ottoman Empire:

Although the real hold of the Ottoman Turks over Egypt was to last only until the 17th century, the country remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire until 1915. Rather than exterminate the Mamelukes, the Ottomans used them in their administration. They established a governor and settled six ocaks (regiments) in Egypt as a garrison. In time the Roman ocaks intermarried with the native people, playing an important role in the country’s economic and political life. Rural areas were treated as crown lands, parceled into plots called iqta, the produce of which went to the Ottoman elite.

The Mameluke Comeback:

As time went on, an inflationary trend that historians have noted in 16th-century Europe had repercussions in Egypt as well. Rising prices led to rivalry among the ocaks over the country’s wealth. This weakened their control, and the Mamelukes stepped into the breach. By the mid-17th century, the Mameluke emirs, or beys, had established their supremacy. Land taxes were farmed out among them, and the urban guilds, which were closely allied with the Roman ocaks, were heavily taxed as a means of diminishing Ottoman influence and of increasing revenue. The Ottomans acquiesced in the system so long as the tribute was regularly paid.
The period from the 16th to the mid-18th century was an age of commercial prosperity when Egypt, at the crossroads of several commercial routes, was the center of a flourishing intermediary trade in coffee, textiles, and spices.
The Ottoman governor quickly became a puppet, first in the hands of the regiments, which held the military power, and then in the hands of the Mamelukes, who came to control the ocaks. The leading Mameluke bey called the Shaikh al-Balad (“chief of the city”), thus became recognized as the real ruler of the land. The Beys imposed higher taxes to finance their military expeditions in Syria and Arabia. Although defeated in Syria by the Ottomans, who once more sought to reinforce their authority, the Mamelukes dominated Egypt until 1798. The last 30 years of the 18th century were marked by plagues and famine that reduced the population to a bare 4 million.

The Reign Of Muhammad Ali:

The French occupation of Egypt in 1798, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, was a brief interlude, for the French never acquired full dominion or control. The grain-producing regions of Upper Egypt remained in Mameluke’s hands. Napoleon’s invasion was too short-lived to have any lasting impact, but it marked the beginning of a renewed European interest in Egypt. In 1801 an Anglo-Ottoman force expelled the French. For the next few years, struggles between Mamelukes and Ottomans for mastery ruined the country until Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman general of Albanian origin, seized power with the cooperation of the local population. In 1805 the Ottoman sultan declared him the governor of Egypt.
Muhammad Ali, a man of genius, slowly and methodically destroyed or bought off all his opponents until he became the only source of power in the country. To gain control of all the trade routes into Egypt, he embarked on wars of expansion. He first conquered Al Hijaz (the Hejaz, now in Saudi Arabia) in 1819 and Sudan from 1820 to 1822; by 1824, he was ready to help the Ottoman sultan put down an insurrection in Greece. The European powers, however, intervened to halt Egyptian advances in Greece, and Muhammad Ali was forced to withdraw his army.
At home, Muhammad Ali encouraged the production of cotton to supply the textile mills of Europe, and he used the profits to finance industrial projects. He established a monopoly over all commodities and imposed trade barriers to nurture the industry. He sent Egyptians abroad for technical education and hired experts from Europe to train his army and build his manufacturing industries (which, however, were never as successful as he hoped they would be).
In 1831 Muhammad Ali invaded Syria, thereby coming into conflict with his Turkish overlord. The Egyptians defeated the Ottoman armies, and by 1833 they were threatening the Turkish capital, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). Once again, Russia, Britain, and France intervened, this time to protect the sultan. Muhammad Ali’s forces withdrew, but he was left in control of Syria and Crete.
Egyptian expansion and control over trade routes conflicted with Britain’s growing interest in the Middle East as a market for its burgeoning industrial production. The threat to the integrity of the Ottoman Empire also disturbed Britain and roused fears of Russian encroachment in the Mediterranean. For these reasons, the British opposed Egypt, and when Muhammad Ali again rebelled against the sultan in 1839, they stepped in for the third time to make him back down. He was offered hereditary possession of Egypt but had to give up his other conquests and remain an Ottoman vassal.

Bankruptcy And Foreign Influence:

After the death of Muhammad Ali in 1849, Egypt came increasingly under European influence. His son, Said Pasha, made some attempts to modernize the government but left a huge debt when he died. His successor, Ismail, increased the national debt by borrowing lavishly from European bankers to develop the country and pay for the Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869. These spendthrift rulers drove the country into bankruptcy and ultimately into the control of their British and French creditors. In 1876 an Anglo-French commission took charge of Egypt’s finances, and in 1879 the sultan deposed Ismail in favor of his son Tawfik Pasha. Army officers, disgusted by the government’s weakness, then led a rebellion to end foreign control. Tawfik appealed to the British for help, and they occupied Egypt in 1882.

Egypt Under The British:

British interest in Egypt stemmed from the Suez Canal as the short route to India. Promises to evacuate the country once order had been restored were broken, and the British army remained in occupation until 1954. Although Tawfik remained on the throne as a figurehead prince, the British consul general was the real ruler of the country. The first and most important consul general was Sir Evelyn Baring(known after 1892 as Lord Cromer).
A nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kamil, a European-educated lawyer, was backed by Tawfik’s successor, Abbas II, during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Kamil agitated for self-government and an end to the British occupation but was ignored by British authorities. In this period, Egyptian agriculture was so completely dominated by cotton grown to feed the textile mills of Lancashire, England, that grain had to be imported to feed the rural population. Irrigation projects were carried out to increase the arable land, and in due course, the entire debt to Britain was paid. British promises to evacuate diminished as Egypt and the Suez Canal became an integral part of British Mediterranean defense policy. The illegal occupation was, in fact, internationally sanctioned in 1904, when France recognized British rights in Egypt in return for British acknowledgment of French rights in Morocco.

Protectorate Declared:

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 brought nationalist activities in Egypt to an end. When Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Britain declared Egypt a protectorate and deposed Abbas II in favor of his uncle, Hussein Kamil, who was given the title of sultan. Legal ties between Egypt and Turkey were finally severed, and Britain promised Egypt some changes in government once the war was over.
The war years resulted in great hardship for Egyptian peasants, the fellahin, who were conscripted to dig ditches and whose livestock was confiscated by the army. Inflation was rampant. These factors were responsible for increasing resentment against the British and set the stage for the violent upheaval that was to come after World War I ended in 1918.
allied promises that former Ottoman territories would be allowed self-determination raised hopes in Egypt of independence once the war was over. A new nationalist movement, the Wafd (“delegation”), was formed in 1918 to plan for the country’s future. Hopes were dashed when Britain refused to consider Egyptian needs, and Saad Zaghlul, the leader of the Wafd, was exiled. The country erupted in violent revolt, and Britain was forced to reconsider its decision. Zaghlul was released, but his efforts to get a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference were thwarted by the British. Violence continued until 1922, when Britain unilaterally declared Egypt an independent monarchy under Hussein’s successor, who became king as Fuad I. The British, however, reserved the right to intervene in Egyptian affairs if their interests were threatened, thereby robbing Egypt of any real independence and allowing British control to continue unabated.
The new constitution of 1924 set up a bicameral legislature but, under pressure from the British and Fuad, gave the latter the right to nominate the premier and to suspend Parliament. The result was a tripartite struggle for mastery over Egypt involving the king, the British ambassador, and the Wafd, which was the only grass-roots party. One government after another fell after trying unsuccessfully to extract concessions from the British. In 1936, under pressures caused by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, an Anglo-Egyptian treaty was finally signed, but it continued the physical occupation of Egypt by the British army and the involvement of the British army in internal affairs.

The Coup Of 1952:

World War II (1939-1945) suspended further political bargaining. The war years brought inflation, interparty strife, and disillusion with the Wafd. Fundamentalist religious organizations, such as the Muslim Brotherhood and Communist groups, developed. In 1948 Egypt and several other Arab states went to war in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the establishment of the state of Israel. Blaming the government for its loss, the army turned against King Faruk, Fuad’s son, who showed no aptitude for government and a blatant disregard for public well-being and morality. In 1952 a group of army officers carried out a successful coup d’etat that ousted the king and in 1953, declared Egypt a republic.

Egypt as a Republic:

The first president of the republic, General Muhammad Naguib, was a figurehead. The real leader was Gamal Abdel Nasser of the Revolutionary Command Council, the officers who had plotted the revolution. In April 1954, Nasser became prime minister. In November of that year, Naguib was removed from power, and Nasser assumed complete executive authority. In July 1956, Nasser was officially elected president.
At first, Nasser followed a pro-Western policy and successfully negotiated the evacuation of British forces from Egypt in 1954. Soon he turned to a policy of neutrality and solidarity with other African and Asian nations and became an advocate of Arab unity.

The Suez Crisis:

In efforts to acquire armaments, which the Western world would not supply to Egypt, Nasser turned to the Eastern bloc. In retaliation, the World Bank turned down Egypt’s request for a loan to finance the Aswan High Dam project. Nasser, therefore, nationalized the Suez Canal and sought to use its revenues to finance the dam. Angered by that move, Britain and France, the main stockholders in the canal, joined with Israel in attacking Egypt in 1956. Pressure from the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forced the three countries to evacuate Egyptian territory, and United Nations (UN) forces were placed as a buffer between Egypt and Israel.
Pursuing his dream of Arab unity, Nasser, in 1958, effected a union between Egypt and Syria under the name of the United Arab Republic. Although it lasted only three years before the Syrians rebelled and reaffirmed their independence, Egypt retained the official name of the republic for many years afterward.

Arab Socialism

Within Egypt the Nasser regime suppressed political opposition and established a one-party system as a means of reforming political life. A series of decrees limited land ownership and undermined the authority of the landowning elite. In 1961 foreign capital invested in Egypt was nationalized, as were public utilities and local industries, all of which became part of the public sector. This new order, which Nasser called Arab Socialism, aimed at greater social equality and economic growth. In 1962 a national charter was drawn up, and the official National Union Party was renamed the Arab Socialist Union. Women, who had been emancipated earlier, were elected to the union, as were workers. The first woman cabinet minister was appointed.

Wars Of The 1960s:

In 1962 Egypt became embroiled in a civil war in Yemen, backing a republican movement against monarchist forces. This venture cost lives and money and left the country weakened. In 1967 Nasser, continuing the Arab struggle against Israel, closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping and requested that the UN forces be withdrawn from the border. The Israelis, believing that Nasser was preparing for war, struck first, attacking and destroying Egyptian airfields and positions in the Sinai. Israeli forces advanced until they reached the right bank of the Suez Canal. This Six-Day War left Israel in possession of the whole Sinai Peninsula. The UN Security Council called for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories. Israel Did decline and continued to occupy the Sinai. When negotiations seemed to be leading nowhere, Nasser turned to the USSR, which rearmed Egypt in return for a naval base. Nasser died suddenly in 1970. Problems of succession to the post of the president were settled when Vice President Anwar El-Sadat, a long-time colleague of Nasser, was chosen to succeed him.

The Sadat Regime:

Sadat was elected by opposing political factions as a compromise candidate on the assumption that he could be manipulated. The new president, however, outwitted his would-be puppeteers and, with the support of the army, put them under arrest. He freed political prisoners who had been incarcerated by Nasser for opposing his policies and called for a regime of economic and political liberalization, especially for the press, which Nasser had strictly controlled.

The 6th Of October War

clashes between Egypt and Israel continued after 1969, and this “war of attrition” resulted in high Egyptian casualties and burdensome military expenditures. Sadat tried to find a way out of that impressive negotiation. successfully he secretly planned for a war to free the occupied Sinai from Israel. He first repaired his fences with the Arab states, especially Saudi Arabia, which financed arms purchases from the Soviet Union. Then, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur and during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan (10th of Ramadan), Egypt launched an air and artillery counterattack across the Suez Canal. Within hours, thousands of Egyptian soldiers had successfully crossed into the Sinai. Protected by a missile umbrella that destroyed Israeli aircraft, they overran and captured the string of Israeli fortifications known as the Bar-Lev line. Israel was caught unprepared. It was a total victory. By the middle of the month, however, with immediate aid from the united states, it had regained the initiative and was able to encircle Egyptian units on the outskirts of Suez. The United Nations then imposed a cease-fire, and an armistice line patrolled by UN forces was eventually established between the Egyptian and Israeli armies.

Peace Treaty With Israel

After the war, Sadat was ready for negotiations. In 1974 and 1975, Egypt and Israel concluded agreements—again mediated by Kissinger—providing disengagement on the Sinai front. In June 1975, Egypt reopened the Suez Canal, permitting passage to ships carrying Israeli cargo. Israel withdrew beyond the strategic passes and from some of the oil fields in the Sinai. Meanwhile, Egypt’s economic position was growing rapidly worse; by early 1976, the country’s debt to the USSR was estimated at $4 billion. The following year, surprising all, Sadat asked the Soviet military advisers to leave the country and threw his lot in with the United States, declaring it held the key to peace in the Middle East. Even more surprising, on November 19, 1977, Sadat flew to Israel and addressed the Knesset (parliament). The historic journey was followed by further negotiations under U.S. auspices. At a tripartite conference with U.S. President Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, in September 1978, Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin agreed on a framework for an Israeli-Egyptian settlement. A peace treaty between the two nations, based on the Camp David accords, was signed in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979.

Sadat Regime

The rest of the Arab world denounced Egypt for making a separate peace with Israel, and some of the more “hard-line” Arab leaders branded Sadat a traitor to the Arab cause. The Sinai was gradually restored to Egypt, but later Egyptian-Israeli talks on a settlement of the Palestinian issue made little progress. Egypt was expelled from the Arab League in 1979 because of the peace treaty, and the league’s headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis, Tunisia. In 1989 Egypt was readmitted to the league; the headquarters were moved back to Cairo the following year. By 1981 Sadat was meeting increasing opposition within Egypt itself, especially from Muslim fundamentalists, who opposed any accommodation with Israel. Sadat responded with a crackdown, arresting and jailing hundreds of his opponents and placing restrictions on the press. In such an atmosphere, he was assassinated by religious fanatics within his own army on October 6, 1981, during a military parade commemorating the Yom Kippur War. Sadat was succeeded by Vice President Hosni Mubarak. While adhering to the Camp David Accords, Mubarak sought political liberalization within Egypt as well as improved relations with other Arab states. Israel completed its withdrawal from the Sinai on April 25, 1982.

Egypt Becomes Free

11/02/2011, or to understand it better, Friday 11:02:2011, is a date that the people of Egypt will always remember. It was on that day that President Hosni Sayyid Mubarak relinquished control of the country and fled to “exile” in Sharm El-Sheikh. As he was fleeing from Cairo, the world’s media decided that Egypt’s problems were now over, and 18 days of peaceful protests had come to an end. They packed up their gear and moved on.
Over the following week, the reports from Egypt started to fade into history as Yemen, Libya, and many other of countries in MENA (the Middle East and North Africa) started their own protests in the Arab Spring, erupting into violence and major chaos. Camera crews were relocated, journalists moved to new warzones, and, almost as quickly as they arrived, they departed, leaving behind the usual collection of “local” reporters and fixers who would largely be marginalized by major networks. Herein lies the problem with the way that the world’s media reports events: it is only good news when it is bad news; bad news sells, and good news is boring!
However, on that Friday evening when the Western world rose to congratulate Egypt on achieving its goal, things seemed to be improving. Many of the world’s leaders, or their representatives, made their way to Cairo. UK Prime Minister David Cameron was the first to arrive, and he promised that Britain would help in Egypt’s rebirth. He was followed by many others, including the US Secretary of State, Hilary Clinton, and US Senator John Kerry. However, why they came here must be questioned, especially when it comes to the impact on travelers to Egypt and their safety and security.
Mr. Cameron stated he would help, and within hours the UK’s Foreign and Commonwealth office travel warning was lifted, yet it took until towards the end of March for the USA to even partially lift their warning. Were Clinton and Mr. Kerry just here for the photo opportunities and media spotlight? So much for President Obama’s speech on Friday night when he said: “The United States will continue to be a friend and partner to Egypt. We stand ready to provide whatever assistance is necessary and asked for to pursue a credible transition to democracy. Egyptians have inspired us”. Lovely rhetoric, but in Egypt, we actually needed that help the week after Mubarak’s resignation. We needed that help at the same time as David Cameron and the rest of Europe lifted their travel warnings allowing tourists to return. By the way, this is not anti-USA, as Canada and Australia have only very recently slightly lifted their travel warnings as well.
Why are these travel warnings important to us in Egypt? Well, many people look to their governments for help when traveling abroad and it is through their Foreign Office/State Departments that they get this advice. When a foreign country says they are going to help a country in the aftermath of a protest or revolution, if that country depends on tourism for its lifeblood, the lifting of travel restrictions is one of the best things it can do. It allows people to know it is safe to travel there. By not doing this, the country will start to slowly implode itself as Egyptians who depend on tourism for their income have to turn to other measures, and when a country is full of priceless artifacts, it is not hard to see what will happen. Again Egypt came under the spotlight of the media once the thefts started, even though they were just as quickly stopped. The vast majority of the looted artifacts are now back in Egypt’s possession or en route to Egypt,

ANCIENT EGYPTION SPORTS

Delve into the thrilling world of ancient Egyptian sports, a land rich with historical significance and cultural depth. Egypt, a civilization that flourished along the fertile banks of the Nile River, was not only known for its pyramids, hieroglyphs, and pharaohs but also for its diverse and vibrant sports culture. Through the lens of sports, we can gain a deeper understanding of the ancient Egyptians’ way of life, their values, and their societal structures.
In ancient Egypt, sports were integral to everyday life and celebrations. The Egyptians were known for their physical strength and agility, which they attributed to their active lifestyle and participation in various sports activities. From the hieroglyphs carved on ancient temple walls and the artifacts found in royal tombs, we have been able to piece together the rich sporting traditions of ancient Egypt.
Sports in ancient Egypt were not merely recreational activities; they held deep symbolic, cultural, and religious significance. They were a testament to the Egyptians’ physical prowess and agility and an integral part of their societal structure. They served as a platform for the Egyptians to showcase their strength, skill, and strategic thinking.
Today’s sports were also played during the ancient Egyptian period. Many illustrations on the walls of tombs and monuments show that sports like the long jump, wrestling, weightlifting, rowing, swimming, shooting, athletics, fishing, and a few ball games were very popular with the ancient Egyptians. Also, many kings and princes in this era were keenly interested in attending sports competitions, which they funded with equipment and other support. Rules like choosing a neutral referee, uniforms for players, and the announcement of winners by awarding different medals are some aspects of ancient Egyptian sports that are very similar to today’s sports.
Scenes on the walls of the temples and pyramids clearly show that Egyptians knew how to keep physically fit and healthy. Sports were an essential part of daily life and culture. Some most commonly played by ancient Egyptians included gymnastics, boxing, high jump, archery, marathon, handball, javelin throw, weightlifting, swimming, rhythmic gymnastics, and equilibrium.

The Significance of Sports in Ancient Egyptian Society

Sports in ancient Egypt played a pivotal role in shaping societal norms and values. They were not only a means of maintaining health and physical fitness but also a way of teaching valuable life skills and instilling discipline, teamwork, and strategic thinking. The ancient Egyptians believed in the concept of ‘Ma’at,’ the divine order that governed the universe, and sports were seen as a way of maintaining this order and harmony.
The societal significance of sports in ancient Egypt was mirrored in their educational system. Education in ancient Egypt was not confined to reading and writing; physical training and sports were considered equally essential. Children were encouraged to participate in various sports from a young age to develop physical strength, agility, and strategic thinking skills.
Moreover, sports played a crucial role in cementing social relationships in ancient Egypt. They served as a platform for people from different social strata to interact and compete, fostering a sense of community and camaraderie. Sports also played a crucial role in religious ceremonies and celebrations, further underscoring their societal significance.

Popular Ancient Egypt Sports

Ancient Egypt was home to various sports, from wrestling and boxing to archery and chariot racing. One of the most popular sports in ancient Egypt was wrestling. Frescoes from the Middle Kingdom period depict scenes of men engaged in wrestling matches, showcasing various techniques and moves.
Boxing was another popular sport in ancient Egypt. This highly physical sport requires strength, agility, and strategic thinking. Boxers wore protective gear, including gloves and headgear, and matches would continue until one of the opponents admitted defeat.
Chariot racing was a thrilling sport popular among the elite of ancient Egypt. This sport requires physical strength, agility, strategic thinking, and teamwork. Charioteers needed to masterfully control their horses and navigate the racing track while competing against other charioteers.

Sports as a Form of Entertainment in Ancient Egypt

Sports in ancient Egypt were not just about competition and physical prowess but also a significant form of entertainment. Spectators would throng the sports arenas to cheer for their favorite athletes, adding an element of excitement and festivity to the events. These events were often accompanied by music, dancing, and feasting, making them a grand spectacle.
Chariot races, in particular, were a significant source of entertainment in ancient Egypt. The thrill of the race, the skill of the charioteers, and the speed of the horses made these events highly exciting and entertaining for the spectators.
Similarly, wrestling and boxing matches were high-energy events that kept the spectators on the edge of their seats. The athletes’ skill, agility, and strength, coupled with the competitive spirit of the matches, made these sports a popular form of entertainment in ancient Egypt.

The Role of Sports in Ancient Egypt’s Culture and Religion

In ancient Egypt, sports profoundly influenced the culture and religion of the people. They were deeply intertwined with their religious beliefs and rituals. Many sports events were held in conjunction with religious festivals and celebrations, and the winners were often presented with sacred amulets and other divine symbols as a mark of divine favor.
Wrestling matches, for instance, were standard during religious festivals and were often dedicated to the gods. Similarly, the victor of a chariot race was seen as being blessed by the gods and was lavishly rewarded. This deep connection between sports and religion reflects the ancient Egyptians’ spiritual significance attached to physical prowess and competition.
Furthermore, sports played an essential role in the cultural expression of ancient Egypt. Sporting events were grand occasions marked by music, dancing, and feasting. They were a platform for the people to express their joy, pride, and competitive spirit. The ancient Egyptians celebrated their physical prowess, strategic thinking, and the divine favor bestowed upon the victors through these events.

Ancient Egypt Sports and Their Influence on Modern Games

The legacy of ancient Egyptian sports can be seen in many modern games and sports. The rules, techniques, and equipment used in old Egyptian sports have significantly influenced the development of modern sports. For instance, the sport of wrestling, which was popular in ancient Egypt, has evolved into various forms of wrestling we see today.
Similarly, the sport of boxing, which was practiced in ancient Egypt, has had a profound influence on modern boxing. The protective gear used by old Egyptian boxers, such as gloves and headgear, has evolved into the boxing gear we use today. Chariot racing, although no longer practiced, has left its mark on modern equestrian sports and motor racing.
Moreover, the spirit of competition, teamwork, and strategic thinking that characterized ancient Egyptian sports continue to be cherished values in modern sports. Old Egyptian sports continue to enthrall and inspire athletes and sports enthusiasts worldwide through their enduring influence on modern games.

Training and Preparation for Ancient Egypt Sports

The ancient Egyptians took their sports seriously and invested significant time and effort in training and preparation. Physical fitness was highly valued, and athletes underwent rigorous training to build strength and endurance. They were also trained in various techniques and strategies to excel in their respective sports.
In addition to physical training, mental preparation was also considered crucial for success in sports. Athletes were taught to remain focused and calm under pressure and to think strategically to outwit their opponents.
Moreover, the ancient Egyptians believed in the importance of a balanced diet for maintaining physical fitness. Athletes were provided nutritious food to fuel their bodies and enhance their performance. This holistic approach to training and preparation underscores the importance that the ancient Egyptians placed on sports and physical fitness.

The Legacy of Ancient Egypt Sports

The legacy of ancient Egyptian sports is immense and far-reaching. They have left an indelible mark on the world of sports and continue to inspire and influence modern games. The rules, techniques, and equipment used in ancient Egyptian sports have been passed down through generations and have shaped the development of various modern sports.
Moreover, the values of competition, teamwork, and strategic thinking that were integral to ancient Egyptian sports continue to be cherished in the world of sports today. They serve as a reminder of the rich sporting tradition of ancient Egypt and its contribution to the global sports culture.
Ancient Egypt sports also continue to captivate historians and sports enthusiasts alike. The relics, frescoes, and artifacts depicting old Egyptian sports offer a fascinating glimpse into this ancient civilization’s life, culture, and values.

Unusual Ancient Egypt Sports

While ancient Egypt was home to many familiar sports, such as wrestling, boxing, and chariot racing, it also had its share of unusual sports. One such sport was ‘Fisherman’s Joust,’ a unique water sport where competitors, standing on small boats, sought to knock each other into the water using long poles.
Another unusual sport was ‘Tug of War,’ which, while common today, was unique in its depiction in ancient Egyptian art. Teams of two to five men would pull on a rope in a test of strength and endurance.
These unusual sports add to the diversity and richness of ancient Egypt’s sports culture and offer a unique insight into the creativity and adventurous spirit of the ancient Egyptians.

What Were Their Favorites?

The sport called javelin throwing was used in ancient Egypt for hunting and practiced both as a sport and for finding food. Archery was another such sport that was a popular mode of recreation in Egypt and a popular way of hunting. Archery was practiced by the royal family very often. Many water sports were also trendy in Egypt, mainly due to the location of the many banks of the longest river on earth, the river Nile. Rowing and swimming were among the most common water sports played by Egyptians during this era. Soccer is a trendy sport in modern Egypt. Still, ancient Egyptians also enjoyed various other sports like tennis, squash, and even golf, which formed an integral part of the old Egyptian sports scene.

What The Tomb Scenes Show

Considering the many drawings and paintings, sports in ancient Egypt also included several ball games. One popular version is a variant of the handball played today. The games were played with balls and bats, which were made out of palm trees. Both children and adults have enjoyed ball games. Most sports in ancient Egypt are believed to have been an activity for mere enjoyment, while some also have developed into professional spectator sporting events. The royal families usually watched these sports to enjoy and have fun. Lengthy marathons were also a part of the sports scene in ancient Egypt, as can be seen from the texts. Marathons have been an essential part of the coronation festivities of pharaohs and kings throughout ancient Egyptian history. Thus, sports in ancient Egypt were necessary and integral to daily life to keep people physically fit and as a means of entertainment and recreation.

Conclusion: The Lasting Impact of Ancient Egypt Sports on Modern Society

Unearthing the thrills of ancient Egypt sports reveals a fascinating tapestry of a society that valued physical strength, agility, strategic thinking, and competition. Sports in ancient Egypt were not merely a pastime; they were deeply ingrained in the people’s culture, religion, and societal structure.
The legacy of ancient Egyptian sports continues to resonate today, influencing modern games and upholding the cherished values of competition, teamwork, and strategic thinking. From the familiar sports of wrestling and boxing to the unusual ‘Fisherman’s Joust,’ the sports of ancient Egypt continue to captivate and inspire.
As we delve deeper into the world of ancient Egyptian sports, we cannot help but marvel at the rich sporting tradition of this ancient civilization and its lasting impact on modern society. It serves as a testament to sports’ timeless appeal and profound influence on human society across ages and civilizations.

Ancient Egypt Animals

Many paintings from ancient Egypt show drawings of animals which during those times were reared mainly for food. Some were also kept as pets. Some old Egyptian animals that were seen during those times are no longer seen due to changes in the climate that have taken over the last thousands of years. Egyptians are known to have understood the characteristics of animals and even admired them, especially animals that could outpower humans. Mummification in Egypt was done of not just humans but animals as well. Most animals in Egypt were considered to symbolize a meaning or were sometimes associated with a particular god.

Some Animals From Ancient Egypt And What They Represented

• Jackals in ancient Egypt were used as a symbol of judgment after death. This was when Anubis, the jackal head god, judged a good heart from a bad one.
• Due to its art of burying itself, the beetle was considered a symbol of survival.
• The cat’s way of hunting its prey made it a symbol of grace and poise. Cats were favorite pets and also symbolized the cat gods like Bast.
• The scarab beetle was sacred to the Egyptians and worn on almost all amulets. This animal was linked with the Egyptian god Khepri. The scarab beetle also symbolizes rebirth after death.
• Crocodiles were feared for their incredible power and danger. They also represented the god Sobek, who was feared and respected because of his extraordinary powers.
• Hippos were feared due to their power but were also considered symbols of rebirth. The hippo is represented by the goddess Tauret (Taweret), who protects women in childbirth.

Common Farming Animals In Ancient Egypt

Animals were important to farmers in Egypt. Animals assisted them with everyday tasks on the field, like trampling in the seeds, pulling the plow, eating unwanted grain or wheat, and providing the Egyptians with food and drink. The animals kept by farmers included cattle, goats, pigs, ducks, cows, and geese.

Dogs in Ancient Egypt:

As far back as in Ancient Egypt, dogs were deemed ‘Man’s best friend.’ Not only were they kept as family pets, but they were also employed for hunting and to keep watch. These canines were pampered, given titles such as ‘Blackey’ or ‘Brave One,’ and adored with intricate leather collars. This pup mummy, believed to be a royal pet, was unearthed in a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings.

Other Animals In Ancient Egypt

Egyptians believed a balanced relationship between humans and animals was necessary to maintain the cosmic order. Animals, both as pets and wild animals, were thus crucial to Egyptian civilization. Cattle were the most essential livestock during those days. Other animals kept included sheep, pigs, and goats. Poultry such as ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to make them healthy. The Nile River acted as a good source of plentiful fish. Bees were also domesticated, at least during the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.
Donkeys and oxen were also used for carrying burdens. Dogs, cats, and monkeys were common pets, but royal families kept exotic pets like lions. Egyptian civilization is believed to be the only ancient civilization with domesticated house pets. During later eras, many animals were worshipped as gods incarnated in the animal form; popular ones included Ibis, Anubis, and Bast.